Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), a Swiss who lived in Paris, was one of the most influential political philosophers ever. His essay The Social Contract explores the dilemma of how man loses his identity and freedom by creating a state. His opening words embody his basic political theory: "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself the master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they. Rousseau adopted many of Thomas Hobbes's theories, but he took them one step further, exploring republicanism rather than a monarchy. He was very anti-Socialist, believing that every human being has a mind of its own and that man is a race of autonomous individuals.

Rousseau acquired a bad name during his lifetime. One critic wrote of him: "He is a poor devil who torments himself and who does not dare to confess the true subject of all his sufferings, which is his cursed head and his pride" He was called the "head of corruption of French society," a "despicable character," and a "contemptible rascal" Only shortly after his death were his ideas taken seriously. His writings were a force that helped make the French Revolution possible. As his theories spread throughout France, the more popular they became, spiritually paving the way for a revolution. Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the new French Republic, embraced Rousseau's ideas and used them as the basis for his Reign of Terror.

Rousseau's theories were not considered worthwhile until after his death. He died in 1778, and the French Revolution began in 1789. Despite the misuse of his ideas by Robespierre, Rousseau is still considered the greatest social critic of the Enlightenment.